COSMOPOLITANISM AND EDUCATION

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18.1. Definition and Establishment of the Theory

Cosmopolitanism is a perspective that considers a person as part of one single community that goes beyond the thinking that an individual belongs to a nation or country, rather, to the entire consortium of humanity.

The term ‘cosmopolis’ was devised by the Cynics – philosophers or believers of the school of thought, Cynicism,  and existed before Aristotle and Alexander the Great. It should be understood that ‘cosmopolis’ existed before Alexander’s campaign and was used as an  ideation together with his ‘universalism.’ Aristotle, on the other hand, is considered a ‘pre-cosmopolitan.’ Aristotle’s campaign on ‘virtue’ justifies that he is a pre-cosmopolitan. Aristotelians have their version of ‘cosmopolis’ in the form of ‘koinopolis.’

The oldest form of cosmopolitanism can be traced back to the time of Socrates. Socrates was believed to be a cosmopolitan. This was believed by philosophers like Cicero, Musonius Rufus, Plutarch, and Epictetus. This was based on the description of his students like Xenophon and Plato. The philosophers that non-stoics and stoics share the same thought that they are citizens of the world. These were Cicero, Plutarch, Seneca, and Epictetus.

Unquestionably, Socratic philosophy has influenced the thinking of ‘virtue’ and how it plays its roles in the field of ethics and politics. It is believed by the Socratics that virtue is not part of man’s nature but rather should be acquired. This means that virtue and doing virtuous acts are intentional aspects of a Man. Hence, it is a Man’s choice to exemplify one.

The first man to announce his citizenship to no nation or city-state, but rather to the world, was the Cynic philosopher Diogenes. Diogenes rejected the notion that a person should be under a nation and should follow rules or regulations. Diogenes carried the philosophy that one becomes a ‘true citizen’ if one belongs to the only ‘true commonwealth’, which in this sense is the world.

In the persona of Crates – a third-generation Cynic philosopher, influenced Zeno of Citium – the person responsible for the school of thought, Stoicism. So, it is clear that Cosmopolitanism is movement that was created by Cynics and then later influenced Stoicism.

18.2. Pedagogical Implications and Theoretical Foundations

This section will discuss and explore cosmopolitanism in various theoretical lenses or perspectives. This section explains the modern philosophers who became the bearers of the philosophical movement, the liberal and moral sides of cosmopolitanism, and its effects and influences on education.

18.2.1. Cosmopolitanism and Immanuel Kant

Immanuel Kant is one of the most prominent philosophers of Cosmopolitanism. Kant’s first view of cosmopolitanism was focused on the hierarchical classification of races where he put European races on top of the hierarchy. The critics of Kant later on expressed their criticism that his views on cosmopolitanism were just serving the White or European people. This is a very dangerous announcement as it will promote indirectly slavery, racism, and colonialism. The positionality of Kant was later cleared by Kleingeld. Kleingeld claimed that Kant’s views were changed at a later time and that was a change of heart. Kant directly negated all his claims by claiming that people are free and this freedom should be given to everyone as this is the right of a citizen of the world. Moreover, people must belong to nobody, or else this will defeat the freedom of one.

Furthermore, Kant constructed three cosmopolitan laws that are relevant to individuals and institutions. These are 1) the essence of state constitutionality, 2) international relations, and 3) cosmopolitan rights. The former two clauses underscore the interaction between states and their populace, while the second clause aims to establish ethical ties among republican states. The third part, about cosmopolitan rights, goes beyond typical political and global rules. It deals with how people connect with states where they aren't citizens. This idea might seem less powerful, but it's becoming more important in a world where everything is interconnected. It needs detailed legal structures. These structures are crucial for making fair laws that apply internationally and nationally. They make sure everyone living and working in different countries, including both businesses and people, gets fair treatment.

18.2.2. Cosmopolitanism and Gunnar Landtman

Gunnar Landtman, a sociologist and anthropologist, established a sociological foundation for the Cosmopolitanism philosophy. His works were focused on solidarity and cooperation of the people around the world, regardless of their affiliations. Landtman; 's famous phrase is ‘individuals and peoples are not each other’s enemies’. Landtman is prominent in providing facts regarding the science of humanity and social evolution. He was able to communicate his knowledge in the field of science and evolution through writing. Though, he did not attract an audience that much, Landtman still dedicated his life to writing regarding social evolution and will it help cosmopolitanism.

The rivalry of Landtman’s cosmopolitanism is the ‘nationalism.’ Nationalism is assumed to have great loyalty towards own nation; thus this could bring competitiveness towards other nations. Competitiveness is a very dangerous thinking especially when promoted to the masses as this could ignite wars between nations. Based on Landtman’s belief regarding nationalism, it should be re-focused on international cooperation to avoid sparking new wars. 

18.2.3. Cosmopolitanism as a Liberal Project

Cosmopolitanism started way back in the ancient history when people started to create linkages towards each other, making civilizations work, and creating humanitarian communities. As believed and embodied, cosmopolitanism is a movement that recognizes the importance of individual rights, cultural diversity, and global interconnection and focuses on humanity in general.

This philosophy holds the belief that a person belongs to a community of all. This means that all of the people in this time, belong to one and single community regardless of cultural differences or affiliations. Following this stand, cosmopolitanism creates opportunities for all people for the sake of mutual understanding concerning their customs, beliefs, traditions, and locations.

This philosophy suggests the construction of a framework that will lead people of all nations to create allegiances.

Cosmopolitanism has six suggested perspectives. Cosmopolitanism is considered as:

1.    A sociocultural condition

2.    Philosophy or worldview

3.    A political project in creating transnational institutions

4.    A political project to recognize multiple identities

5.    A dispositional orientation or attitude

6.    A mode of practice

In the realm of politics and ethics, liberal cosmopolitanism advocates for a global community where individuals hold rights and responsibilities beyond national boundaries. It promotes the idea that individuals have fundamental human rights, regardless of their nationality, and encourages a sense of shared responsibility for addressing global issues such as human rights abuses, environmental concerns, or socio-economic disparities.         

Most of the studies nowadays are leaning towards the neoliberalist perspective on liberal cosmopolitanism. This perspective aims to modify or explain human actions. This modification or explanation can be in the form of strategic cosmopolitanism. Strategic cosmopolitanism typically involves the instrumental use of cosmopolitan ideals to serve specific goals or agendas. In education or broader societal contexts, it might refer to the selective adoption of cosmopolitan principles—such as promoting global competitiveness or economic advantages—while potentially overlooking or downplaying the ethical, cultural, or humanistic aspects of cosmopolitanism.

Another way of modifying or explaining human actions can be through ethical cosmopolitanism. Ethical cosmopolitanism is deeply rooted in humanistic principles, emphasizing the hospitable treatment of others and reflective consideration of one's responsibilities towards fellow beings.

However, there is a notion of studying intensively the ethical aspects of cosmopolitanism. This includes incorporating a global human rights curriculum in educational institutions, the ethical use of power, and the importance of dialogue and conflict in education.

18.2.4. Cosmopolitics and Cosmopolitanism

Scholars of cosmopolitanism are reconstructing the worldview into a wider perspective while abandoning undesirable characteristics of the past. Abandoning does not necessarily mean ‘to neglect’ but rather address it and avoid reoccurrence. Aligned with its goal, cosmopolitanism adheres to living harmoniously not just with humans but also with non-humans, as they are also part of the world that we are currently in. This means that to live harmoniously, there should be an order or regulation that will maintain this endeavor. This will come in the form of ‘cosmopolitanism’, which strives to provide an inclusive and orderly fashioned system that is respective to peoples’ mutual understanding. Cosmopolitics does not aim to be ruled by a person, nation, or country, rather tries to construct a ‘common world’ for all.

18.2.5. Cosmopolitanism and Cosmopolitics in Education

The education sector is one of the components of society that can deliver an understanding of cosmopolitanism and cosmopolitics to people. It’s the education sector’s work to build and promote understanding amidst differences around the world.

One of the ways the education sector can offer probably is the promotion of dialogue inside the community or group. This can provide opportunities not just for agreements but also for disagreements. Though disagreements are not necessarily negative, disagreements or conflicts manifest opposing ideas that would later on provide a wider perspective on the subject matter.

Another is creating open and safe spaces where one can express openly his/her ideas towards aspects like politics or issues concerning humanity like oppression, racism, colonialism, etc. In this sense, education will serve as a platform where cosmopolitanism and cosmopolitics can flourish.

Establishing understanding and commonality among people around the globe may be an arduous task, but this opens the opportunity of attaining a cosmopolitan world where people interact with one another celebrating unity amidst diversity.

18.2.6. Educational Cosmopolitanism as a Moral Endeavor

Educational cosmopolitanism rises as it was introduced by Hansen concerning his belief that cosmopolitanism can be experienced through art and literature using the varying perspectives of people and how they make meanings based on their understanding and experiences. An individual, who has not experienced the culture of others or traveled to other countries perhaps, will have the opportunity to imagine the world and create their meanings based on understanding through the art and literature they have. This promotes openness to the culture of others and at the same time loyalty towards the locals. Moreover, this perspective resonates with Chouliaraki who believed that cosmopolitanism is an act of appreciating the goodness of people or showing one to another without waiting for an exchange.

18.3. Challenges and Critiques

Cosmopolitanism has faced criticism for its exclusive focus on globalization without addressing historical events' impacts. This includes colonialism, racism, and patriarchy, shaping its philosophy and theory. Despite originating from diverse philosophies globally, there's a prevalent perception that cosmopolitanism is inherently Western due to its association with European figures like Socrates and Kant, rooted in Europe's history.

Derrida's discussions stress the vital link between philosophy and global issues, emphasizing its necessity for policymakers and leaders to navigate ethical complexities. He challenges Eurocentric constraints in philosophical discourse, advocating inclusivity across diverse traditions and languages. Derrida underscores the philosophical essence within international institutions, emphasizing the importance of preserving this heritage and making philosophy globally accessible, especially amid educational shifts towards STEM disciplines.

Concerns about cosmopolitanism's historical ties to racism and Eurocentrism have prompted newer scholars to redefine it as a perspective on individuals' relationships with co-existent others. They advocate disrupting prevailing systems and promoting solidarity, moving away from Eurocentric associations. This perspective aligns with Derrida's call for a more inclusive and globally accessible philosophy, providing tools to comprehend and navigate the intricate global landscape.

However, the evolution of cosmopolitanism from its earlier associations with racism, slavery, and Eurocentrism signifies a shift toward its original purpose of solidarity and cooperation. This transition aligns with newer scholars' movements, challenging existing societal structures and advocating for a perspective that transcends Eurocentric views. This broader understanding of cosmopolitanism signifies a departure from its historical constraints, embracing solidarity and cooperation in the contemporary global context.

18.4. Conclusion

Cosmopolitanism, rooted in the belief in a global human community, transcends national boundaries and champions the interconnectedness of humanity. Its core tenets emphasize cultural respect, individual rights, and a sense of shared responsibility toward global issues. Despite its foundational ideals, cosmopolitanism faces challenges in addressing historical injustices and overcoming a perceived Western-centric bias.

The goals of cosmopolitanism revolve around fostering a universal sense of belonging, promoting cultural diversity, and advocating for human rights worldwide. Education stands as a crucial arena for nurturing cosmopolitan values, fostering dialogue, and embracing diverse perspectives.

Moving forward, the future of cosmopolitanism lies in its evolution and expansion. Scholars are redefining cosmopolitanism to be more inclusive, considering non-human entities and advocating for 'cosmopolitics'—a harmonious order inclusive of all. To achieve its aspirations, cosmopolitanism must grapple with historical legacies, challenge biases, and address global disparities, striving for a more equitable and inclusive worldview.

The path ahead demands a comprehensive approach—integrating cultural dialogue, acknowledging past injustices, and embracing diverse viewpoints—to shape a future where cosmopolitanism flourishes as a guiding moral compass for a truly interconnected and harmonious global society.

Cosmopolitanism is challenged to address questions like “Does cosmopolitanism reject or condemn colonialism?”, “what will happen to people's culture and traditions?”, “How will ALL nations benefit from this movement?”, and “How cosmopolitanism will address the differences of each individual in terms of their varied experiences from colonization, racism, and patriarchy?”

As a final point, cosmopolitanism does not aim to create a new standard, nor be reigned by a person or one nation, but rather realize peoples’ collective ideals, dreams, and aspirations. We, people, should work hand-in-hand to achieve a world that we and the future generation can enjoy.

References:

Papastephanou, M. (2016). Cosmopolitanism: Educational, philosophical and historical perspectives (Vol. 9). Springer.

Stornaiuolo, A., & Nichols, T. P. (2019). Cosmopolitanism and education. In Oxford research encyclopedia of education.